Unit 1 — Ancient civilizations › Reading and writing
Reading and writing : Make a historical account about heritage sites and the major threats faced by modern civilization
- قراءة نصّ تاريخيّ قراءة سريعة لاستخراج فكرته العامّة (skimming)، وقراءة انتقائية لاستخراج معلومة دقيقة (scanning)
- تحديد ما تعود إليه كلمات الإحالة (reference words) في النصّ
- التعرّف على نمط النصّ: وصفيّ، تفسيريّ، سرديّ، حجاجيّ، أمريّ
- كتابة رواية تاريخية (historical account) عن موقع تراثيّ، مرتّبة زمنيّا، تنتهي بما يهدّده اليوم
- الماضي البسيط والماضي التامّ في رواية الأحداث
- أدوات الترتيب (first, then, finally) وأدوات الزمن (when, after, before)
- بنية الفقرة: جملة الفكرة (topic sentence) وجمل الدعم
1. Before reading — our heritage
2. Read
Ancient Egyptian civilization rose in the Nile Valley. As in Sumer, the need for an irrigation system first led farmers to join together and cooperate. But the bonding together of men developed much further in Egypt. Sumer remained a land of small city states whereas the people of Egypt became united under the rule of a single king. This made Egypt the first nation in history. (§1) The Pharaoh's government did many important things. It protected the land and its inhabitants by organising defences to keep out the raiding war-bands which sometimes attacked the country from the desert. The preserving of internal peace was another of the Pharaoh's tasks. The people of a nation can only live together if the rulers make sure that the laws are obeyed. Many of the laws of the Egyptians were traditional, that is to say, they had grown up gradually, over the centuries. But the Pharaoh could make new laws, and did so, whenever he thought it necessary. (§2) In countless ways, then, the Egyptians derived great benefits from their system of national government. But this was only one reason why they stayed a united people throughout ancient times. Another reason was their national pride and strong sense of belonging together. The Egyptians felt that they were privileged to have been born in Egypt. All other lands, they thought, were cold and dark, and the people who lived in them more akin to animals than to human beings. (§3) It was the Ancient Egyptians' feelings and beliefs about the Pharaoh that provided the strongest unifying force of all. In Sumer, the king of each city was thought to be the chief servant of the city's god. The Egyptian idea of kingship went further than this. They thought that their king was himself a living god, a divine ruler who had magic control over the weather and the Nile, and who alone brought safety, prosperity and happiness to the nation. The Pharaoh was revered to such a degree that his people dared not mention him by name. They only spoke of the palace in which he lived. That is why they called him Pharaoh, which means 'great house'. (§4) When we realize how much the Pharaoh meant to the Egyptians, it is easier to understand how the pyramids came to be built. Since he was a god, he could not be allowed to die. It was believed that his spirit would survive only if his body were preserved, together with everything that was needed for its future well-being. The pyramids, therefore, were designed as eternal dwelling places for the god-kings from where the dead Pharaohs would continue their magic work for their 'beloved land'. (§5) The effort and resources needed to build pyramids were so great that from the 25th century B.C. onwards, they had perforce to become smaller and smaller. The later Pharaohs were buried, not in pyramids, but in rock tombs. Yet the contents of the tombs remained as extravagant as before. When Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 it proved to contain the most incredible burial treasure ever found. With all this treasure going into the ground instead of being invested, it was no surprise that eventually the Pharaohs proved to be the major cause behind the decline and fall of the ancient Egyptian economy, and therefore of its civilization. (§6) From Victor Skipp, Out of the Ancient World, Penguin, p. 61
3. Skimming — the general idea
Skimming means reading quickly for gist, the general meaning. You skim a text to find out its topic, its main ideas and its general organisation. You needn't know every word: concentrate on the key words, the words that the writer considers important. Key words are often repeated in the text.
Task 1 — Skim the introduction and the conclusion, and pick out four to six key words.Task 1 — Skim the introduction and the conclusion, and pick out four to six key words.استخرج من المقدّمة والخاتمة أربع إلى ستّ كلمات مفتاحية.
For example: Egypt, Nile Valley, united, nation (in the introduction); pyramids, Pharaohs, decline and fall, civilization (in the conclusion). Check your choice: a key word comes back. Egypt and the Pharaoh appear again and again, from the first paragraph to the last.
Task 2 — Use your key words to give the text a title.Task 2 — Use your key words to give the text a title.ضع عنوانا للنصّ انطلاقا من كلماتك المفتاحية.
A possible title: Ancient Egypt — a nation united by its god-king. It gathers three key words: the nation, its unity, and the Pharaoh. Any title is good if it covers the whole text, not just one paragraph.
A. The Pharaoh's government B. The importance of the Pharaoh for the unity of Egypt C. The unification of ancient Egypt D. Patriotic feelings in ancient Egypt E. The reason for the ruin of the Egyptian economy F. The idea behind the building of the pyramids G. Tutankhamun's treasure
Task 3 — the answersTask 3 — the answersالإجابة : فكرة لكلّ فقرة، وفكرة زائدة.
| Paragraph | Main idea |
|---|---|
| §1 | C — the unification of ancient Egypt |
| §2 | A — the Pharaoh's government |
| §3 | D — patriotic feelings in ancient Egypt |
| §4 | B — the importance of the Pharaoh for the unity of Egypt |
| §5 | F — the idea behind the building of the pyramids |
| §6 | E — the reason for the ruin of the Egyptian economy |
G is the irrelevant idea. Tutankhamun's treasure is mentioned in §6, but only as an example: the main idea of the paragraph is why the Egyptian economy fell.
4. Scanning — the details
Scanning means reading for specific pieces of information: a fact, a detail, a particular word. When you scan, your eyes move quickly to find the information you are interested in, and you ignore the rest.
Task 4 — Scan the text. A. What is the major difference between ancient Sumer and ancient Egypt? B. What benefits did the Egyptians derive from their system of national government? C. What does the name Pharaoh mean? D. Why were the pyramids important for the Egyptians? E. Who discovered Tutankhamun's tomb?Task 4 — Scan the text. A. What is the major difference between ancient Sumer and ancient Egypt? B. What benefits did the Egyptians derive from their system of national government? C. What does the name Pharaoh mean? D. Why were the pyramids important for the Egyptians? E. Who discovered Tutankhamun's tomb?أجب عن الأسئلة الخمسة بالمعلومة الدقيقة وحدها.
- A. Sumer remained a land of small city states, whereas the people of Egypt became united under the rule of a single king (§1).
- B. The government protected the land and its inhabitants against the raiding war-bands from the desert, and it preserved internal peace by making sure that the laws were obeyed (§2).
- C. It means 'great house': the Egyptians dared not name their king, so they spoke of the palace in which he lived (§4).
- D. They were the eternal dwelling places of the god-kings: the Pharaoh's spirit would survive only if his body were preserved, with everything needed for its future well-being (§5).
- E. Howard Carter, in 1922 (§6).
Notice that each answer is a detail, not a paragraph: scanning finds, it does not copy.
5. Reference words — what do they replace?
Task 5 — What do the words in bold in the text refer to?Task 5 — What do the words in bold in the text refer to?إلى أيّ اسم أو فكرة تعود الكلمات المكتوبة بالخطّ الغليظ؟
| Word | Paragraph | It refers to |
|---|---|---|
| This | §1 | the people of Egypt becoming united under the rule of a single king |
| It | §2 | the Pharaoh's government |
| its | §2 | the land |
| which | §2 | the raiding war-bands |
| they | §2 | many of the laws of the Egyptians |
| so | §2 | made new laws |
| this | §3 | the benefits of their system of national government |
| them | §3 | all other lands |
| he, him, his | §4 and §5 | the Pharaoh |
| their | §5 | the dead Pharaohs |
The method is always the same: look back, to the nearest noun or idea that fits the sentence. A reference word saves the writer from repeating a name — and it tests whether the reader has followed.
6. What kind of text is it?
| Type of discourse | What the text does |
|---|---|
| descriptive | it describes people, places, things |
| expository | it explains how things work, and why they are what they are |
| narrative | it tells the story of something or someone |
| argumentative | it defends points of view |
| prescriptive | it gives instructions |
Which type of discourse does the text on Ancient Egypt belong to?Which type of discourse does the text on Ancient Egypt belong to?إلى أيّ نمط ينتمي النصّ؟
It is mainly expository: it explains why the Egyptians stayed a united people and why the pyramids were built (« That is why… », « therefore »). But §6 is narrative: it tells events in order — the pyramids became smaller, the later Pharaohs were buried in rock tombs, Howard Carter discovered Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922. One text, two types.
7. Write — a historical account of a heritage site
When we give a historical account, we follow chronology. We use past tenses — generally the past simple, and occasionally the past perfect — with sequencers (first, to begin with, next, then, later, finally, in the end) and time conjunctions (when, as soon as, while, before, after, once). Organise it like an essay: an introduction that states what you will show (the thesis statement); body paragraphs, each opened by a topic sentence and developed by supporting sentences; and a conclusion. The major threats to our civilization named in this unit are nuclear warfare, pollution, natural catastrophes, diseases, economic collapse and collision with heavenly bodies — a heritage site shares them.
| When | What happened |
|---|---|
| Phoenician times | Algiers was founded as one of their trading posts |
| Carthaginian and Roman times | it was known as Icosium |
| 5th century A.D. | the Vandals destroyed Icosium |
| five centuries later | Emir Bulughin rebuilt the town into a trading port called al-Jaza'ir |
| 1516 | the Turkish Baba Aruj brothers gained control of the city, which then thrived |
| Ottoman times | mosques, palaces and the white-washed fortification known as the Casbah were built |
| French colonial rule | the Casbah underwent some changes |
| today | it remains the cultural heart of the city of Algiers |
Write a historical account of the Casbah of Algiers in three paragraphs. ① An introduction: where the site is, and your thesis statement. ② Its history, in chronological order: at least three sequencers, and one past perfect with after. ③ A conclusion: the site today, and the threats it shares with our whole civilization.
A model — the same method applied to the facts aboveA model — the same method applied to the facts aboveنموذج : الطريقة نفسها مطبّقة على المعطيات أعلاه.
Of Algeria's seven World Heritage Sites, the Casbah of Algiers holds the most important position among the historic sites of the north. Its history is closely linked with the history of the city of Algiers, and it shows how many civilizations have met on this coast. To begin with, the Phoenicians founded Algiers as one of their trading posts, and the Carthaginians and the Romans then knew it as Icosium. In the 5th century A.D., the Vandals destroyed Icosium. Five centuries later, Emir Bulughin rebuilt the town into an important Mediterranean trading port called al-Jaza'ir. After the Turkish Baba Aruj brothers had gained control of the city in 1516, Algiers thrived, and the Ottomans later erected the famous white-washed fortification known as the Casbah. Finally, in spite of the changes it underwent during the French colonial rule, the Casbah still remains the cultural heart of the city. Today it shares the threats of our whole civilization, pollution and natural catastrophes among them: a site that has survived so many conquests deserves to be protected.
Check the model with the method: a thesis in §1, the events in the order of the table with their sequencers, one past perfect for the earlier of two events, and a conclusion that brings the story to the present.
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