Unit 3 — SCHOOLS DIFFERENT AND ALIKE › Reading and writing
Reading and writing : Write an expository article on the causes and effects of examination stress on students
- قراءة نصّ قراءة سريعة (skimming) لتقسيمه إلى فقرات، وربط كلّ فقرة بفكرتها الرئيسية
- استخراج أدوات الربط (link words) من نصّ، وبيان العلاقة المنطقية التي تعبّر عنها كلّ أداة: السبب، النتيجة، الهدف، المقابلة، التنازل
- ترتيب جمل مبعثرة لتكوين نصّ متماسك، بالاستعانة بكلمات الإحالة وأدوات الربط
- كتابة مقال تفسيريّ (expository article) عن أسباب ضغط الامتحانات ونتائجه على التلاميذ، تُدعَم فيه كلّ نتيجة بدليل، دون إبداء رأي
- بنية الفقرة: جملة الفكرة (topic sentence) وجمل الدعم
- القراءة السريعة (skimming) والقراءة الانتقائية (scanning)
- أدوات السبب والنتيجة والتنازل: because, as a result, although, however
1. Before reading — education in the USA
2. Read
Although in general Americans prefer to limit the influence of government, this is not the case where education is concerned. All levels of government are involved in education, and it is considered to be one of their most important responsibilities. The Federal Government provides some money for education through the Department of Education. But state and local governments have direct control and are responsible for the education of students between the ages of 5 and 18. Formal education is usually considered to begin at the age of 5 when children go to kindergarten. Kindergarten and the next five or six years of education (first grade, second grade, etc.) are together usually called elementary school (the term primary school is less common in the US than in Britain). Grades seven to twelve are part of secondary education, and may be divided between junior high school and senior high school. Other school systems have middle school, where children spend two years. High school usually covers four years, from the ninth to the twelfth grade. Post-secondary education (also called University or Higher or Tertiary Education) after twelfth grade is not free, though state governments, which run most of the educational institutions, subsidize the cost for people who live in the state. By some standards, American education seems very successful. Although young people must attend school until they are 16, over 80% continue until they are 18. About 45% of Americans have some post-secondary education and over 20% graduate from college or university. However, 20% of adults, i.e. about 40 million people, have very limited skills in reading and writing, and 4%, i.e. about 8 million people, are illiterate. Most educational institutions in the US are public (run by the government), but there are some private schools for which students have to pay a lot of money to attend. Many private schools have a high reputation, and parents send their children there so that they will have advantages later in life. Americans agree on the importance of education being available to all, but there is disagreement about what should be taught. The greatest area of disagreement is the place of religious and moral education. Commonly debated topics include whether teachers should ask students to say prayers and whether it is right to beat students for punishment. Sometimes the debate ends up in a court of justice, and courts usually say that students shouldn't be forced to do something that is against their beliefs. From D.K. Stevenson, American Life and Institutions, USIA
3. Skimming — five paragraphs in one block
Skimming means reading quickly for gist, the general meaning: the topic of a text, its main ideas and its general organisation. You needn't know every word. A paragraph develops one main idea. When the idea changes, a new paragraph begins, often with a topic sentence that announces the new subject. To find the paragraphs of a block text, look for the sentences where the writer moves on to something else.
Task 1 — Divide Text 1 into five paragraphs. Where does each one begin and end?Task 1 — Divide Text 1 into five paragraphs. Where does each one begin and end?قسّم النصّ الأوّل إلى خمس فقرات: أين تبدأ كلّ فقرة وأين تنتهي؟
- §1 [Although in general Americans prefer … between the ages of 5 and 18.]
- §2 [Formal education is usually considered to begin … for people who live in the state.]
- §3 [By some standards, American education seems very successful … are illiterate.]
- §4 [Most educational institutions in the US are public … advantages later in life.]
- §5 [Americans agree on the importance of education … against their beliefs.]
Each paragraph opens on a new subject, announced by its first sentence: who is responsible for education, then the stages of school, then the results, then public and private schools, then what Americans disagree about.
A. The school system B. Points of conflict C. The government and education D. Types of education E. Education in the US F. The quality of education
Task 2 — the answersTask 2 — the answersفكرة لكلّ فقرة، وفكرة واحدة هي عنوان النصّ.
| Paragraph | Main idea |
|---|---|
| §1 | C — the government and education |
| §2 | A — the school system |
| §3 | F — the quality of education |
| §4 | D — types of education |
| §5 | B — points of conflict |
E — Education in the US is the title: it covers the whole text, not just one paragraph.
4. Scanning — the link words
Scanning means reading for specific pieces of information — here, the link words. Link words, also called discourse connectors, are words that establish logical relationships in sentences, between sentences, or between paragraphs. When you read, pay attention to them: authors often include them to help you better understand the text. In « Unlike other countries, the United States does not have a national system of education », unlike expresses a relationship of contrast.
Unlike other countries, the United States does not have a national system of education. Education is considered to be the responsibility of each state. Although there is a Federal Department of Education, its purpose is merely to gather information, to provide counselling, and to help finance certain educational programmes. Since the Constitution does not state that education is a responsibility of the Federal government, all educational matters are left to the individual states. As a result, each of the 50 states is free to determine its own system for its own public schools. In turn, however, state constitutions give actual control of the public schools to the local districts within the 50 states. There are some 16,000 school districts within the 50 states. In contrast to other countries, there is, therefore, a very large amount of local control over education in the United States. However, because local and state taxes support the public schools, there are significant differences in the quality of education. States and communities that are able or willing to pay more for schools, buildings, materials, and teachers almost always have better educational systems than those that cannot or do not. Thus, for example, the average expenditure per pupil for secondary education in the U.S. was $4,000 in 1986. But some states such as Alaska, New Jersey, and Wyoming spent more than $5,000 per pupil. In order to reduce the differences in the quality of education, the Federal government sometimes provides special funds to poorer areas and school districts. But in general Americans are worried that more Federal help could eventually lead to less independence and less local control in state education. From D.K. Stevenson, American Life and Institutions, USIA
Task 3 — Scan Text 2. Spot all the link words and explain the relationship each of them expresses.Task 3 — Scan Text 2. Spot all the link words and explain the relationship each of them expresses.استخرج من النصّ الثاني أدوات الربط كلّها، وبيّن العلاقة التي تعبّر عنها كلّ أداة.
| Relationship | Link words in the text |
|---|---|
| contrast | Unlike · however · In contrast to · However · But |
| concession | Although |
| cause | Since · because |
| result | As a result · therefore · Thus |
| purpose | In order to |
| comparison | than |
| illustration | for example · such as |
| sequence | In turn |
Follow the reasoning they carry: since the Constitution says nothing about education, it is left to the states; as a result, each state is free; in turn, the states give control to the local districts; therefore, local control is very large. However, because local taxes pay for the schools, the quality of education is not the same everywhere.
Task 4 — Which other link words could replace those of the text?Task 4 — Which other link words could replace those of the text?ما الأدوات التي يمكن أن تحلّ محلّ أدوات النصّ دون أن يتغيّر المعنى؟
- Unlike other countries → In contrast to or Contrary to other countries: a contrast, followed by a noun group.
- Although there is a Federal Department of Education → Though or In spite of the fact that there is…: a concession, followed by a clause.
- Since the Constitution does not state… → Because the Constitution does not state…: a cause.
- As a result, each of the 50 states is free… → As a consequence, So or Therefore: a result.
- In order to reduce the differences → So as to or To reduce the differences: a purpose.
A link word can only be replaced by one of the same family — and with the same construction: in contrast to, like unlike, takes a noun group; though, like although, takes a full clause.
5. Coherence — putting sentences in order
A. This idea is more or less accepted all over the world. B. The job market is changing rapidly as a result of technological advance. C. Today, many adults go back to school to broaden their knowledge and learn something they enjoy doing. D. The idea of continuing or lifelong education has become more important than ever before. E. People are afraid of losing their jobs if they don't keep upgrading and updating their occupational skills. F. In the near future, all of them will return to school mostly for occupational reasons.
Task 5 — the order, and the words that give itTask 5 — the order, and the words that give itالترتيب، والكلمات التي تدلّ عليه.
- D → A: « This idea » in A refers back to « the idea of continuing or lifelong education » in D. D opens the text.
- B → E: a cause, then its effect — the job market changes, so people are afraid of losing their jobs.
- C → F: « Today », then « In the near future »; « all of them » in F refers back to « many adults » in C.
A coherent order: D, A, B, E, C, F. With link words: « The idea of continuing or lifelong education has become more important than ever before. This idea is more or less accepted all over the world because the job market is changing rapidly as a result of technological advance. As a consequence, people are afraid of losing their jobs if they don't keep upgrading and updating their occupational skills. Although today many adults go back to school to broaden their knowledge and learn something they enjoy doing, in the near future all of them will return to school mostly for occupational reasons. » The pairs B-E and C-F may also change places, as long as each pair stays together.
6. Write — an expository article on examination stress
An expository article explains: its purpose is investigation and analysis. You simply present facts and information, and you give no judgement or opinion — you let the reader do that. Each time you mention an effect, support it with evidence, illustrations and examples. Prepare it in steps: study a network tree of ideas and add details of your own; select three to four ideas and develop them, one per paragraph; link them with the right link words; then revise your draft — the structure of your sentences, the organisation of your paragraphs, coherence, spelling and grammar.
| Relationship | Link words |
|---|---|
| cause and effect | as a result · as a consequence · so · therefore · because · since |
| purpose | in order to · to · so as to · so that · in order that |
| contrast | unlike · in contrast to · contrary to |
| concession | though · in spite of the fact that · although |
| Branch | Details |
|---|---|
| mental breakdown | illness: ulcers · lower resistance to infection and disease · high blood pressure |
| neglect of body | poor eating habits · lack of exercise · lack of sleep |
| lack of recreation | ? · no time |
| nervousness | — |
| personal relationships suffer | friends · family |
| Branch | Details |
|---|---|
| lower test scores | ? · ? |
| interferes with learning | — |
| unnecessary | ? · ? |
| activities that can be reduced | ? · ? |
Write an expository article for a school magazine analysing the causes and effects of examination stress on students. ① Study the network tree. Fill in the boxes marked ? with details of your own; you may cross out ideas, replace them with your own, or reshuffle them. ② Select three to four ideas and develop them in your draft. Each time you mention an effect, support it with evidence, illustrations and examples — for instance: « Generally, students who do not cram perform better than those who do in the Baccalauréat examination. » ③ Your purpose is investigation and analysis: present facts and information, and give no judgement or opinion. ④ Use link words of cause and effect, purpose, contrast and concession. ⑤ Revise your draft: the structure of your sentences, the organisation of your paragraphs, coherence, spelling and grammar.
A model — the same method applied to the network treeA model — the same method applied to the network treeنموذج: الطريقة نفسها مطبّقة على شجرة الأفكار أعلاه.
Examination stress: causes and effects Every year, as the Baccalauréat approaches, students feel the pressure of the examination. This article examines where examination stress comes from, and what it does to students' health and to their results. To begin with, examination stress comes from the way some students prepare. Some cram, trying to learn a whole year's lessons in a few weeks. Others take crash courses on top of their school lessons in order to get better marks, and have no time left for recreation. Although these activities are meant to help them succeed, they add to the pressure. As a result, students' health suffers. Because they work late into the night, they lack sleep; they also neglect their bodies, with poor eating habits and a lack of exercise. Nervousness sets in, and in the most serious cases stress leads to mental breakdown and illness: ulcers, high blood pressure, or a lower resistance to infection and disease. Personal relationships suffer too, since stressed students have less time for their friends and family. Finally, examination stress is counter-productive: it interferes with learning and leads to lower test scores. Unlike students who cram, those who do not generally perform better in the Baccalauréat examination. In short, examination stress comes from the way students prepare for the exam, and it affects their health, their relationships and their results.
Check the model with the method: an introduction that announces the subject; one idea per paragraph, opened by its topic sentence — the causes, the effects on health, the effects on results; an example for every effect; link words from the four families — cause and effect (as a result, because, since), purpose (in order to), contrast (unlike), concession (although); and no opinion: no « I think », no « students should ».
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