Expressing cause and result: because, so … that, as a result, thus, consequently

🔊 المعلّمة تقرأ لك

« As counterfeiters rarely pay duties or taxes, EU governments have also lost a lot of revenue. » One sentence, two facts, and a link between them: counterfeiters do not pay taxes — that is the cause; governments lose money — that is the result. A whole family of words does this job: because, since, so … that, as a result, thus, consequently. So which words link a cause to its result — and how do you choose between them?

🎓في نهاية هذا الدرس ستكون قادرا على:

التعبير عن السبب بـ ⁦because, as, since⁩ متبوعة بجملة، وبـ ⁦because of⁩ و ⁦as a result of⁩ متبوعتين باسم
التعبير عن النتيجة بـ ⁦so, thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, consequently⁩
التعبير عن النتيجة بـ ⁦so + adjective + that⁩ و ⁦such + noun + that⁩
ربط واقعتين بعلاقة السبب والنتيجة، وإعادة صياغة الجملة بأداة أخرى دون تغيير معناها

🔑يفترض هذا الدرس أنّك تتقن:

الجملة الأساسية والجملة التابعة
الصفة والمجموعة الاسميّة
الحاضر البسيط والماضي البسيط

1. Giving the cause: because, as, since

السبب يجيب عن سؤال «لماذا؟». أدواته ⁦because, as, since, for⁩ وتليها جملة، أمّا قبل الاسم فنستعمل ⁦because of⁩ و ⁦as a result of⁩.

The cause — or reason — answers the question why? It is introduced by because, as, since or for, followed by a full clause: « She has to stay in bed as she is ill. » « Since brands are too expensive, many of these consumers are obliged to buy counterfeits. » Before a noun group, we use because of or as a result of: « They must refrain from buying them because of their lower quality. »

Imitating property is theft

[…] These products are imitated to such perfection that it is difficult to distinguish between the genuine and the fake products. […] Counterfeiting is not without consequences. A study conducted in 2000 by the Centre for Economics and Business Research estimates that the EU has lost 17,120 jobs as a result of the counterfeiting of clothing, cosmetics, toys, sports equipment and medicines. As counterfeiters rarely pay duties or taxes, EU governments have also lost a lot of revenue. This loss amounts to 7.4 billion dollars a year. As far as companies are concerned, the loss in profitability is so big that most of them have launched advertisement campaigns against counterfeiting. However some consumers, both in the developed and the developing countries, are relatively unconcerned about counterfeiting. Since brands are too expensive, many of these consumers are obliged to buy counterfeits to satisfy their needs. […] They are also aware that they must refrain from buying them because of their lower quality and lack of safety standards. […] From The Economist, May 17th, 2003

Task 1 — Which of the link words in bold introduce a cause, and which a result? What follows each of them?

أيّ أدوات الربط المكتوبة بالخطّ الغليظ تدخل على السبب، وأيّها على النتيجة؟ وماذا يليها؟

Link word	It introduces	Followed by
As (counterfeiters rarely pay duties or taxes)	the cause	a full clause
Since (brands are too expensive)	the cause	a full clause
because of (their lower quality)	the cause	a noun group
as a result of (the counterfeiting of clothing…)	the cause	a noun group
so big that (most of them have launched campaigns)	the result	a full clause
to such perfection that (it is difficult to distinguish…)	the result	a full clause

Task 2 — « The EU has lost 17,120 jobs as a result of the counterfeiting of clothing… » Does as a result of introduce the cause or the result?

هل تدخل ⁦as a result of⁩ على السبب أم على النتيجة؟

The cause: the jobs were lost because of counterfeiting. After as a result of comes the noun group that explains why. Do not confuse it with As a result, without of, which opens a sentence and introduces the result: « As a result, each of the 50 states is free to determine its own system. » One little word — of — turns the relation round.

2. Giving the result: so, thus, therefore, as a result, consequently

النتيجة تجيب عن سؤال «فماذا حدث؟». أدواتها ⁦so, thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, consequently⁩، و ⁦so⁩ تربط داخل الجملة الواحدة.

The result — the consequence, or effect — answers the question what happened then? It is introduced by so, and so, thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence or consequently. So joins the two facts inside one sentence; the others often open the second sentence, followed by a comma. The verb result works in both directions: « Our problems result from our negligence » — from introduces the cause; « The change of policy has resulted in failure » — in introduces the consequence.

Education in the United States — link words at work

Unlike other countries, the United States does not have a national system of education. Education is considered to be the responsibility of each state. […] Since the Constitution does not state that education is a responsibility of the Federal government, all educational matters are left to the individual states. As a result, each of the 50 states is free to determine its own system for its own public schools. […] There are some 16,000 school districts within the 50 states. By contrast to other countries, there is, therefore, a very large amount of local control over education in the United States. However, because local and state taxes support the public schools, there are significant differences in the quality of education. States and communities that are able or willing to pay more for schools, buildings, materials, and teachers almost always have better educational systems than those that cannot or do not. Thus, for example, the average expenditure per pupil for secondary education in the U.S. was $4,000 in 1986. […] From D.K. Stevenson, American Life and Institutions, USIA

Task 3 — In this text, which link words introduce a cause, which a result? Which facts do they link?

في هذا النصّ: أيّ أدوات الربط تدخل على السبب، وأيّها على النتيجة؟ وما الواقعتان اللتان تربط بينهما كلّ أداة؟

Since — the cause: the Constitution does not make education a Federal responsibility. The result: all educational matters are left to the states.
As a result — the result: each of the 50 states is free to determine its own system.
therefore — the result: there is a very large amount of local control over education.
because — the cause: local and state taxes support the public schools. The result: significant differences in the quality of education.
Thus — the result, illustrated by an example: the average expenditure per pupil in 1986.

Task 4 — Which other link words could replace Since, As a result and because in the text?

ما الأدوات التي يمكن أن تحلّ محلّ ⁦Since⁩ و ⁦As a result⁩ و ⁦because⁩ في النصّ؟

Since → As, Because: « As the Constitution does not state that education is a responsibility of the Federal government, … »
As a result → As a consequence, Consequently, Therefore, Thus: « Consequently, each of the 50 states is free to determine its own system. »
because → since, as: « However, since local and state taxes support the public schools, … »

Replace a cause by a cause and a result by a result — never one by the other.

3. So … that, such … that

يمكن أن تُعلَن النتيجة داخل الجملة الأولى: ⁦so⁩ قبل الصفة، و ⁦such⁩ قبل المجموعة الاسميّة، ثمّ ⁦that⁩ متبوعة بالنتيجة.

The result can also be announced inside the first clause, with so + adjective + that or such + noun (phrase) + that: « It was so hot that we decided to go to the beach. » « It was such a sunny day that we decided to go to the seaside. » So comes before an adjective (so hot, so big); such comes before a noun group (such a sunny day, such perfection). The that-clause gives the result.

Link each pair of sentences with so + adjective + that or such + noun phrase + that.

A. a) There are many marketed imitations of these brands. b) Consumers have lost confidence in these brands. B. a) Copies of brands are cheap. b) Some consumers don't hesitate to buy them. C. a) Counterfeits are of bad quality. b) It is a waste of money to buy them.

Task 5 — the answers

اسأل: هل تأتي قبل الفراغ صفة فنستعمل ⁦so⁩، أم مجموعة اسميّة فنستعمل ⁦such⁩؟

A. There are so many marketed imitations of these brands that consumers have lost confidence in them. — so goes before many, as before an adjective.
B. Copies of brands are so cheap that some consumers don't hesitate to buy them. — so + the adjective cheap.
C. Counterfeits are of such bad quality that it is a waste of money to buy them. — such + the noun group bad quality.

Task 6 — Find the two sentences of the text (§1 and §2) built on the same pattern. What do their that-clauses express? Rewrite them with so, as a result, as a consequence or consequently.

استخرج الجملتين المبنيّتين على النمط نفسه، وبيّن ما تعبّر عنه الجملة التابعة، ثمّ أعد صياغتهما بأداة نتيجة.

§1: « These products are imitated to such perfection that it is difficult to distinguish between the genuine and the fake products. » §2: « The loss in profitability is so big that most of them have launched advertisement campaigns against counterfeiting. » The that-clauses express the result. Rewritten: « These products are imitated to perfection; as a result, it is difficult to distinguish between the genuine and the fake products. » « The loss in profitability is very big; consequently, most companies have launched advertisement campaigns against counterfeiting. »

Do this alone, in writing. Write a short paragraph against counterfeiting. Start with: « Some people argue that counterfeiting benefits consumers by giving them access to lower-price goods. This is a totally mistaken claim. » Then give two reasons from this list — imitations are of poor quality and do not last long; fake medicines can kill people; piracy kills creativity and innovation; counterfeiting gives a bad reputation to the country — and link each one to its result with because, so … that, as a result or consequently. End with a short conclusion.

اكتب وحدك فقرة قصيرة ضدّ التقليد، تذكر فيها سببين وتربط كلّا منهما بنتيجته بأداة من أدوات الدرس.

A model answer

Some people argue that counterfeiting benefits consumers by giving them access to lower-price goods. This is a totally mistaken claim. First, imitations are of such poor quality that they do not last long. Moreover, fake medicines can kill people because they contain too few active ingredients or too many contaminants. As a result, counterfeiting puts our health in danger. In short, a counterfeit is never a good bargain.

In the exam, cause and result are tested by joining and rewriting: two sentences to join with a given link word, or a sentence to rewrite with another one without changing its meaning — so … that into as a result, because into since. Have three things ready: ① the cause: because, as, since + a clause, because of, as a result of + a noun group; ② the result: so, thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, consequently; ③ so + adjective + that, such + noun + that. The frequent mistake is to mix up as a result of (the cause follows) and As a result, (the result follows).

What I keep — The cause answers why? — because, as, since + a clause; because of, as a result of + a noun group. The result answers what happened then? — so inside the sentence, or thus, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, consequently at the start of the next one. The result can also be announced with so + adjective + that (so big that…) or such + noun + that (such perfection that…).

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